One-tenth of the world’s population lives on islands, with their exclusive economic zones occupying one-sixth of the planet’s surface (Baldacchino, 2006). Islands are a type of geographical feature that can appear, change, and even vanish. They are surrounded by oceans or other bodies of water. Because of their remoteness, frequent village-like inhabitants, and resource scarcity, they have diverse and occasionally distinct geological, environmental, and cultural histories.

Hay (2013) stated that vulnerability and resilience are considered important integrating concepts when managing the local consequences of global changes. As a result, many adaptation actions are geared towards reducing vulnerability and increasing adaptive capacities and resilience through improving climate-related knowledge and strengthening socio-economic systems and livelihoods. The author added that managing global change can be closely aligned with local development processes.

Islands are among the places least responsible for the emission of greenhouse gases causing climate change. (IPCC, 2012; United Nations, 2010 and UNEP, 2014) also noted that they are predicted to experience various adverse associated effects, including increased temperatures, “extreme” weather events, and sea level rise. Many authors have discussed how quickly islands may recover from natural disasters and societal crises by responding and adapting (Pelling and Uitto, 2001).

Meanwhile, Scheyvens & Momsen (2008, p. 498) opined that isolation is frequently seen as a disadvantage by people who trade goods globally. Still, it may be a plus for tourism because remoteness tends to make the destination more alluring and exotic, especially in the case of small islands. With the increased climate action, islands have also recently received corresponding attention for research. Although there is a considerable knowledge gap about islands, several authors have conducted lots of research on islands in recent times in a broader view. Some other authors researched specific islands. In 2006, the independent, open access, non-fee charging Island Journal was launched. In addition, the increasing academic interest in island vulnerability is highlighted by the emergence of a dedicated website, “www.islandvulnerability.org” (Amoamo, 2011), bringing Islands to a bigger audience.

Therefore, this paper discusses the “islandness” of Bermuda and Pitcairn Islands regarding their vulnerability, resilience, and openness, adapted from the book “An Introduction to Island Studies” by James Randall (2020). Global changes are environmentally unfriendly scenarios affecting the world today and require urgent attention. Both islanders and non-islanders are affected by the impacts of this global change. Small islands like the Pitcairn Islands are at more nsignificant risk due to their smaller sizes and accessibility. Despite this shortcoming, some nislands are self-sufficient and sustaining, contributing to their resilience against all forms of pressure. In addition, islands can be geographically, economically, and culturally isolated and remote while simultaneously open and connected to the world around them. The remaining part of this article is sectioned as follows:

1. Description of the study area

2. Discussion of essay themes

3. Conclusion

4. References.

Accompanying Storymap: https://arcg.is/vunCT

Finally, this essay will discuss four main thematic areas, including the vulnerability and marginalization of Bermuda and Pitcairn islands to global changes, their resilience and capability of responding quickly to external pressures, their physical, cultural and economic isolation and remoteness as well as their openness and connectedness to the world around them.

2.0 DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA 

Bermuda and Pitcairn Islands are British Overseas Territory in the North Atlantic and South Pacific, respectively. Bermuda is a coral island known as a centre of business, finance, and environmental stewardship (Government of Bermuda, 2021). On the other hand, Pitcairn Island is a volcanic island described as one of the most remote islands in the world as a result of its geographic location.

2.1 Bermuda

Bermuda is a British Overseas Territory in the North Atlantic Ocean. The Bermuda archipelago consists of 181 islands (7 main islands) with a total land area of 54 km2 . The closest land outside the territory is North Carolina, United States, approximately 1,035 km to the west-northwest. Bermuda lies between latitude 32.3078° N and longitude 64.7505° W. Bermuda has a sub-tropical climate with mild winters and warm summers. Prone to hurricanes (Kara et al., 1999), its climate exhibits oceanic features similar to other coastal areas in the Northern Hemisphere, with warm, moist air from the ocean ensuring relatively high humidity and stabilizing temperature. As of July 2018, Bermuda’s population was around 70,000, making it the most populous of the British Overseas Territories (Wikipedia). Bermuda’s location in the Atlantic along the Gulf Stream is subject to storms from June to November and experiences frequent strong winds during the winter. The average temperature in Hamilton, the capital city, ranges from 18 °C in February and March to 27.5 °C in August. The annual precipitation totals approximately 1,400mm. Rainfall is fairly evenly distributed across the seasons because tropical downpours replace the flow of weather fronts that occurs in winter in the summer months. As a result, April and May have the slightest rain, while October has the most.

Bermuda’s economy mainly depends on luxury travel and related services, multinational firms’ financial services, and minimal manufacturing. Although Bermuda’s economy does not heavily rely on agriculture due to the small amount of fertile land, some of the crops grown there include bananas, vegetables, citrus fruits, and flowers. Bermuda also produces honey and dairy goods. The terrain of Bermuda is made up of modest hills divided by depressions. Since they are so fruitful, Bermuda’s agriculture is primarily concentrated in these depressions (Government of Bermuda, 2021).

2.2 Pitcairn Island

The Pitcairn Islands is a group of four volcanic islands in the southern Pacific Ocean that form the sole British Overseas Territory in the Pacific Ocean. The four islands-Pitcairn (volcanic), Henderson (coral), Ducie (atoll), and Oeno (atoll), are scattered across several hundreds of kilometres of ocean and have a combined land area of about 47 km2 . Henderson Island accounts for 86% of the land area, but only Pitcairn Island is inhabited. The islands nearest the Pitcairn Islands are Mangareva – 40km to the west, and Easter Island – 1921km to the east. Pitcairn Island lies between latitude 24.3768°S and longitude 128.3242° W.

Adamstown, the capital, is located on the only inhabited island, the southernmost of the four islands of the archipelago. The average annual temperature on the island is 23.17°C. The rains are frequent in all seasons, so much so that in a typical year, 1,600mm of rainfall and average precipitation exceeds 100mm in all months. The natural hazards peculiar to Pitcairn island are typhoons, especially from November to March. Air travel is not feasible due to its remoteness and challenging terrain, and getting there by boat from Mangareva takes 36 hours.

3.0 DISCUSSION 

Adopted from the essential textbook by James Randal, this section will discuss the following questions:

• Bermuda and Pitcairn Islands are marginalized and vulnerable to global changes

• Bermuda and Pitcairn Islands are resilient and capable of responding quickly to external pressures

• Bermuda and Pitcairn Islands societies are isolated and remote physically, cultural, and economically

• Bermuda and Pitcairn Islands are open and connected to the world around them

3.1 Bermuda and the Pitcairn Islands are Marginalized and Vulnerable to Global  Changes 

Two-thirds of the world’s coastal disasters recorded annually are associated with extreme weather events and are likely to increase in intensity due to climate change (Morss et al., 2011). In popular climate change discourse, islands are called the planet’s barometers of change, litmus tests, and canaries in a coal mine (Kelman and West, 2009). Bermuda’s reefs have undoubtedly seen a whole range of modern threats to their health, including sedimentation, infections, bleaching, and overfishing (Cook et al., 1994). However, over the past three decades, they have remained generally stable and benefited from proactive management to lessen harmful anthropogenic influences, particularly fishing pressure. Nevertheless, the lagoonal and near-shore reefs seem to be impacted by marine operations and chemical pollution, and they are still vulnerable to risks in the future (Smith et al., 2013). Additional possible hazards include sea level rise (IPCC, 2007), making coral reefs and shorelines more susceptible to damage from storms and cyclones due to wave action and sea level rise.

In 2009, the Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS) made a Declaration on Climate Change, which states that; climate change poses the most severe threat to their survival and viability, undermines their efforts to achieve sustainable development goals, and threatens their very existence. Owing to global increases in greenhouse gas emissions and land-use changes that contribute to recent climate change, the picture of island futures painted by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change is deeply troubling. Some authors have argued that many Pacific peoples choose to live in relatively small island communities, notwithstanding that these ‘vulnerable’ aspects exist on their island (Hau’ofa, 1998). In Pitcairn Island, the workforce of approximately fifteen men and fifteen women is at higher accident risk related to the environment, landscape, and working with heavy machinery and longboats daily. The island’s isolation makes the community vulnerable to infectious diseases carried onshore by visitors, especially cruise ships and also posed a problem for emergency medical attention beyond the scope of the current facilities. Medical evacuation procedures depend on the availability of transport within the island’s vicinity, and it is not unusual to “flag down” a passing container ship for emergency transport to Mangareva (Amoamo, 2011). The author further stressed that members of the Pitcairn community have strongly expressed their ndetermination to remain on the island and to preserve their ability to live as an economically self-sufficient community. Hence, the increasing academic interest in island vulnerability is highlighted by the emergence of a dedicated website, “www.islandvulnerability.org” (Amoamo, 2011).

Conversely, Pitcairn Island is at risk of Potential extinction. The survey conducted by (Solomon and Burnett, 2014) opined that if nothing is done, only three working individuals will remain on Pitcairn Island by 2045, with the rest being very old. Furthermore, the study found that residents who had left the island in recent decades had little interest in returning. Only 33 of the hundred emigrants contacted agreed to participate in the poll, and only three showed a wish to return. In addition, the Pitkerner population’s age distribution is shown in Table 1 below. Pitcairn Island’s population is ageing and shrinking. Therefore, as the population ages, more health services and aid with eldercare will be needed. Otherwise, not only the inhabited Pitcairn Island but also Oeno, Ducie and Henderson will be forgotten.

_{Table 1: Pitcairn Population by age and gender} 

^{Source: Pitcairn Island Economic Review, 2014.} 

3.2 Bermuda and Pitcairn Islands are Resilient and Adaptable to Respond Quickly to  External Pressures

Despite their vulnerability to global changes, Bermuda and Pitcairn Islands have made several efforts to respond to global changes. Five of the six bird species endemic to Bermuda have gone into extinction, except for the Bermuda Petrel, commonly known as Cahow in Bermuda (Hoyo & Collar, 2014 & 2016). Bermuda has shown resilience in preserving the only endemic bird species left on the island.

In 1960, the Bermuda Government launched Bermuda’s Cahow Recovery Program. The project is a long-term management, research, and recovery program to reduce threats to the National Bird of Bermuda, the Cahow, or Bermuda Petrel (Pterodroma cahow). It also aims to promote the recovery of this endemic species, which is now one of the rarest seabirds on earth and is unique to the island. Bermuda is environmentally aware of the environmental changes; hence introducing this program was a change maker in conserving fauna species, which is a conservative procedure (Government of Bermuda, 2021). Furthermore, in 1627, the Government of Bermuda passed a law to restrict the exportation of Bermuda cedar for shipbuilding to conserve Bermuda’s cedar forests (Bermuda Climate Central). Table 2 shows the list of extinct bird species in Bermuda.

_{Table 2: List of Extinct Bird Species in Bermuda} 

^{Source: Mongabay} 

Meanwhile, there have been severe threats on Pitcairn island fish, mainly targeting the albacore tuna and, to a lesser extent, bigeye and yellowfin tuna. The Pitcairn Islands Marine Protected Area is a unique area of scientific interest and a globally important site of marine biodiversity. Comprehensive satellite surveillance has been undertaken since January 2016 to understand better the threat of illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing on Pitcairn Island. The Blue Belt Programme was initiated in collaboration with the British Government and has developed a compliance risk profile regularly updated based on new intelligence (United Kingdom Government, 2021).

3.3 Bermuda and Pitcairn Islands Societies are Isolated and Remote Physically,  Culturally, and Economically

Bermuda and Pitcairn Island are geographically remote islands. Located off the east coast of the United States, Bermuda is situated around 1,770 km northeast of Miami, Florida. The nearest landmass is Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, about 1,030 km west-northwest. Bermuda has relied on tourism as a primary economic activity ever since the 1920s. At the close of 2003, the World Bank positioned this small country behind only Luxemburg and the United States as the third richest country (DeShields & Riley, 2006).

The island nearest to the Pitcairn Islands to the west is Mangareva, with an estimated distance of 691km, and to the east is Easter Island which is approximately 1921km. Pitcairn remains free of COVID-19, in large part due to its isolation in the Pacific Ocean (Matthew et al., 2021). However, the Lack of accessibility and quality of medical care is still a prominent issue for the people of Pitcairn. The island is located 32 hours by yacht from Peru in the Northeast and New Zealand in the Southwest (Helen, 2019). The Migration, Remittances, Aid and Bureaucracy (MIRAB) economic model is frequently the final result for relatively small islands (Bertram and Watters, 1985). The success of MIRAB has enabled a gradual shift from subsistence to subsidies, especially in the outer islands and politically dependent ones like Pitcairn (Connell, 2013: 256). Given these restrictions, it is understandable that many small islands, like Pitcairn, have chosen tourism as their main economic driver. Despite their remoteness, they are still considered exciting tourist destinations.

Furthermore, small islands are said to be among the most creative entrepreneurial places in the world (Baldacchino, 2015, cited in Randall, 2021: 166). In Pitcairn, the major private revenue generator is tourism, followed by the sale of Pitcairn’s unique, prize-winning, and disease-free honey. Smaller income streams come from selling home-made artisan products and Pitcairn merchandise to the tourist industry, catering services, mechanical and house maintenance services, and the sale of fish, fruit, and other fresh produce to visiting vessels (Government of the Pitcairn Islands, 2018).

Finally, BirdLife International has identified the four islands in the Pitcairn group as separate Important Bird Areas (IBAs). As a result of its Isolation, Pitcairn Island is recognized because it is the only nesting site of the Pitcairn reed warbler. Henderson Island is important for its endemic land-birds as well as its breeding of seabirds. Oeno’s ornithological significance derives principally from Murphy’s petrel colony. Finally, Ducie is essential for its colonies of Murphy’s, herald, and Kermadec petrels and Christmas shearwaters (Birdlife International, 2022).

3.4 Bermuda and Pitcairn Islands are Open and Connected to the World Around Them

Today’s islands often capitalize on their apparent remoteness in time and space to become popular destinations (Gillis, 2007). Bermuda consists of seven main islands connected by causeways and bridges; there is also agreement that 20 islands are inhabited (Ahrens et al., 1999). Bermuda registered fifty-one thousand inbound tourist arrivals in 2020, of which nine thousand corresponded to cruise passengers. In the previous year, the total number of international visitor arrivals in the insular territory surpassed eight hundred thousand (UNWTO, 2020). This gross decline is a result of the covid 19 pandemic in 2020. According to (FlightConnections, 2022), one can connect from Wade International Airport in Bermuda to six destinations (New York City, Charlotte, Miami, Atlanta, Toronto and London) by air.

Pitcairn, which has a very constrained physical environment and a limited range of productive potential, is maintained by ostensibly long-term political commitments and external development assistance, including one from the United Kingdom Amoamo (2011). In terms of governance, Pitcairn Island is entirely reliant on the British Government. Although the British parliamentary system heavily influences Bermuda’s constitution, it is almost wholly self-governing aside from defence and international affairs. They are both connected under the umbrella of the British Overseas Territories.

According to the United Nations (2022), there are 38 Small Island Developing States UN members and 20 non-un members/associate members of regional commissions, where Bermuda is classified as one. This makes these islands open and connected to the world around them. However, Pitcairn Island is not classified as SIDS due to its political affiliation with the United Kingdom.

Pitcairn island can only be reached by ship. There is no harbour, so cruise ships have to unload small numbers of passengers in dories and land only when calm sea conditions permit, creating a challenge for tourism marketing (Amoamo, 2011). Habitants of Pitcairn claim that they are not so isolated since technological advances, such as the phone and internet, reached their island in 2006. According to the Government of Pitcairn, Wifi is present in every house on the island. Also, Pitcairn Islands has its products available globally via its official government website. Islanders hope an internet connection will help raise awareness about the island and what it can offer tourists (Helen, 2019). Recent initiatives for more independent self-governance and community development programs to upgrade infrastructure are believed to boost Pitcairn island tourism (PIGA, 2008a). Table three below shows the annual number of visitors on Pitcairn Island from 2009 to 2012 (Pitcairn Island Immigration).

_{Table 3: Pitcairn Island Visitors from 2009 to 2012}

^{Source: Pitcairn Island Immigration}

4.0 CONCLUSION  

This paper discusses the islandsness of Bermuda and Pitcairn Islands, focusing on their marginalization and vulnerability, resilience and adaptability, isolation and remoteness, as well as their openness to the world around them.

Non-islanders may see these islands as remote in closed systems, surrounded by water. On the contrary, islanders perceive it to be central, open and connected as long as they perform their daily activities without depending on external assistance. The islandsness of Bermuda and Pitcairn Islands is, however, subjective. Therefore, it is essential to note that positionality and context are important factors when discussing islands.

REFERENCES 

Ahrens, W. P., & Embleton, S. (1999). The Naming of Bermuda. Names, 47(3), 191-204.

Amoamo M., (2011) Remoteness and Myth Making: Tourism Development on Pitcairn Island, Tourism Planning & Development, 8:1, 1-19, DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1080/21568316.2011.554035

Amoamo, M. (2016). Re-Imaging Pitcairn Island: Examining dualities of conflict and collaboration between island/metropole through Tourism. Shima: The International Journal of Research into Island Cultures.
http://dx.doi.org/11.10.21463/shima.11.1.09

Available at: http://datazone.birdlife.org/species/taxonomy

Baldacchino G. (2006). Islands, island studies, island studies journal. Isl. Stud. J. 1(1):3–18.
https://www.islandscholar.ca/islandora/object/ir:ir-batch6-5754

BirdLife International (2022) Important Bird Areas factsheet: Henderson Island. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 11/11/2022.

Cook CB, Dodge RE, Smith SR (1994) Fifty years of impacts on coral reefs in Bermuda. In: Proceedings of the colloquium on coral reefs, 1993, R.S.M.A.S, Miami. pp 160–166

DeShields, S. & Riley, C. (2006). From instability to volatility: Bermuda’s shift from tourism to international business dependency. Tourism. 397.

FlightConnection, 2022. Direct flights from Bermuda (BDA). Retrieved 11 November 2022, from https://www.flightconnections.com/flights-from-bermuda-bda

Gillis, J. (2007) Island sojourns, Geographical Review, 97(2), pp. 274–87

Government of Bermuda – Protecting the Environment (2021).
https://www.gov.bm/articles/government-bermuda-%E2%80%93-protecting-environment

Government of Pitcairn Islands (2018). Pitcairn Islands Immigration.
http://www.immigration.gov.pn/ecomomy/index.html

Hau’ofa, E (1998) ‘The ocean in us,’ The Contemporary Pacific v10 n2: 391-411. Available at:
https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstreams/b4352775-7676-4a35-b4a7-952ca3c37354/download

Hay, J.E. (2013). Small island developing states: coastal systems, global change, and sustainability. Sustainability Science, 8(3), 309-326. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-013-0214-8

Helen Schwie (2019). Living Conditions in Pitcairn Islands. https://borgenproject.org/living-conditions-in-pitcairn-islands

Hoyo, J. & N.J. Collar HBW and BirdLife International Illustrated Checklist of the Birds of the World. 2014 Vol. 1: Non-passerines & 2016 Vol. 2: Passerines. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona.

IPCC (2007) Climate change 2007: The physical science basis. In: Solomon S, Qin D, Manning M, Chen Z, Marquis M, Averyt K.B., Tignor M, Miller HL (eds). Contribution of working group to the fourth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge/New York, 996pp

IPCC (2012). Managing risks of extreme events and disasters to advance climate change adaptation: a special report of Working Groups I and II of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.

Kara, James B. Elsner; A. Birol (1999). Hurricanes of the North Atlantic: Climate and Society. New York, NY [u.a.]: Oxford Univ. Press. ISBN 978-0195125085.

Kelman I, West J. (2009). Climate change and small island developing states: a critical review. Ecol. Environ.Anthropol. 5(1):1–16. http://www.ilankelman.org/articles1/eea2009.pdf

Matthew C. Benwell, Peter Clegg & Alasdair Pinkerton (2021) COVID-19 and the British Overseas Territories: a comparative view, The Round Table, 110:1, 159-170. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00358533.2021.1875722

Morss R, Wilhelmi OV, Meehl GA, Dilling L. (2011). Improving societal outcomes of extreme weather in a changing climate: an integrated perspective. Annual Review of Environment and Resources. 36:1–25.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228243636_Improving_Societal_Outcomes_of_Extreme_Weather_in_a_Changing_Climate_An_Integrated_Perspective

Pelling, M., & Uitto, J.I. (2001). Small island developing states: natural disaster vulnerability and global change. Global Environmental Change Part B: Environmental Hazards, 3(2), 49-62.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S1464-2867(01)00018-3

Pitcairn Island Immigration (2022). http://www.immigration.pn/FAQ.php. Accessed: 2 November 2022.

Pitcairn Islands Governance Restructure Concept Document PIGA (2008a). (Auckland: Government of Pitcairn Islands).

Randall, J. (2020). An introduction to island studies. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.

Scheyvens, R., & Momsen, J. (2008). Tourism in small island states: From vulnerability to strengths. Journal of sustainable tourism, 16(5), 491-510.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09669580802159586

Smith, S. & Sarkis, Samia & Murdoch, Thaddeus & Weil, Ernesto & Croquer, Aldo & Bates, Nicholas & Johnson, Rodney & De Putron, Samantha & AJ, Anderson. (2013). Threats to Coral Reefs of Bermuda. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-5965-7_13

Solomon, P.R., & Burnett, K. (2014). Pitcairn Island Diaspora Survey. Final Report, 55.

The United Nations World Tourism Organization, 2020. International Tourism Highlights, (2020) Edition. (n.d.). 24. Available on:
https://www.e- unwto.org/doi/book/10.18111/9789284422456

UNEP (2014). Emerging issues for small island developing states: results of the UNEP Foresight Process. Nairobi: UN Press.

United Kingdom Government (2021). The Pitcairn Islands Marine Protected Area Management Plan 2021 to 2026. Available on: http://www.pitcairn.pn/3783%20Pitcairn%20MPAMP_WEB.pdf

United Nations (2010). Trends in sustainable development: small island development states (SIDS). New York: UN Press.https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/313Trends_in_Sustain able_Development_SIDS.pdf

United Nations (2022). List of SIDS: Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/topics/sids/list. Accessed: 2 November 2022.